A rare glimpse of Fallow Deer

The sight of three fallow deer in the forest the other morning was my first encounter with these elegant creatures for many months. Of the four species of deer to inhabit this part of the forest, the fallow is the one that I see least often; roe and Muntjac provide almost daily sightings and I probably stumble across the red deer once or twice a month. This suggests that the fallow either occur at low density in this particular area or, more likely, they are occasional visitors from elsewhere.

The sighting comes in the week after the launch of a report highlighting that there are too many deer in our forests, their numbers having increased to a point where they are damaging the nature of the woodland ecosystem. A particular problem comes from the browsing of the ground and shrub flora, to the extent that many of our woodlands now show a clear ‘browse line’ below which few plants are able to grow. This has knock-on effects for our insects, small mammals and ground-nesting birds. Increasing deer numbers have, for example, been linked to the loss of breeding Nightingales from many of our woods.

Fallow is the most widespread of the British deer species, being present on a number of offshore islands and most of the mainland – though it is absent from our uplands. A form of fallow deer was present in Britain historically but this became extinct following the last glaciation. The species was then introduced by the Normans and hunted in the 2,000 plus deer parks and hunting forests that were established from the 11^th to 14^th centuries. Over time the fallow deer colonised the wider landscape, later becoming the deer of choice in most of the landscape parks associated with our larger stately homes.

Although woodland is an important habitat for fallow deer, providing winter food and year-round cover, these particular animals tend to feed in more open situations. Forest rides, woodland edges and grassland habitats are well-used. Some populations thrive within our more arable landscapes, feeding on crops and margins and resting up in small woodlots. That fallow deer are grazers rather than browsers is very evident when you watch them in a parkland setting like Holkham.

I tend to think of the local fallow deer as being part of the forest, much like the roe and red deer that are more truly native. In reality they are the result of deliberate introduction, a species added to the landscape for our own ends. We have always managed our fallow populations and this is something that will need to continue if we are to limit their impact on the woodlands systems with which they are associated.

A forest dawn

The timing of dawn means that I now get out to the forest almost bang on first light and I relish these early spring mornings for the wildlife watching opportunities that they deliver. It is, in my mind, the best time of the day and, quite possibly, the best time of the year.

There is still a chill in the air as I head out. Sometimes a slight frost will crisp the vegetation but on other mornings the air will be heavy with moisture, the vegetation dripping and the dogs soon soaked. Two Roe Deer that have been hanging around this block of forest are present again this morning, cautiously watchful but tolerant of my regular presence. Less often these days I catch a glimpse of a group of Red Deer and rarer still is the sighting of one or more Fallow Deer. Interestingly, the numbers of Muntjac are much reduced and instead of seeing several each day I now only see perhaps one a week.

This morning it is the nonchalant ease of a fox that catches my attention. The fox is sitting some 70 metres or so ahead of me, just on the edge of the forest track, its upright posture alert but seemingly unconcerned. I halt and call the dogs to heel and for a few moments we watch each other. The sun is high enough and strong enough to cast long shadows, one of which cuts across the fox so that it appears two-tone, warm red across the head and shoulder and deep brown below. The fox relaxes, has a good scratch and then turns, trotting away into the undergrowth. It is a magical but all too brief moment and the best view I have had of a fox here for many months. We continue with our walk and pass the spot where the fox had been sat. As is the case most mornings there is the scent of fox on the air, something that the dogs invariably notice and they scout about before being called onwards.

Fox populations have struggled in a rural county like ours because of their reputation as vermin – unwelcome predators of game and domestic poultry. Such persecution has made them shy and, excepting the brazen individuals that make a living in urban Norwich, they are easily overlooked. As one of our larger mammals they should have a special place in our countryside, affording the opportunity for a wonderful encounter and providing children and adults alike with a special moment interacting with nature. We used to have foxes visit our garden when I was a child and I can still recall the sense of wonder that seeing such a creature had on me.

Norfolk's deer revela our influence

Norfolk is well represented when it comes to deer, with six species currently established within the county. While it might seem fairly straightforward to divide the six species into native (Roe and Red) and introduced (Fallow, Sika, Muntjac and Chinese Water Deer), things are not quite what they seem. The presence of all six species within the county owes a great deal to our activities and to the deliberate introduction of animals for sporting or personal interests.

Like the Red Deer, the Roe is an ancient inhabitant of Norfolk, its bones present in the fossil and archaeological record. However, both species were lost from the county historically, only to be reintroduced from imported stock. Red Deer had become extinct across much of England and Wales by the end of the Eighteenth Century and the same is almost certainly true for the Roe within East Anglia. The Roe that are present here today are most likely of German origin, the descendents of individuals introduced to Warren Wood, near Thetford, in 1884 by William Dalziel Mackenzie.

Other species have a longer pedigree, as in the case of Fallow, brought in to populate the 40 or so deer parks established within the county since Doomsday. Red and, in one case, Sika Deer were also used to stock Norfolk’s deer parks, which were status symbols for those wealthy enough to be able to build and maintain them. The earliest of our deer parks appears to be Costessey, dating from around 1086. Like the majority of our other deer parks, that at Costessey was lost many decades ago. Many disappeared during the Civil War but three remain today, two well-known and well-maintained and one about which I know rather little (but would like to know more). The two big parks are at Holkham (completed by 1759) and Houghton (completed in 1722); both have magnificent herds of Fallow, that at Houghton managed to favour the white form of Fallow, that at Holkham with the standard form. The other park is at Melton Constable, reputed to support 300 animals, roughly evenly divided between Red, Fallow and Sika, but since it does not have the sort of public access associated with Holkham it is difficult to know how the herds are doing.

One of the reasons for the demise of deer parks was the expense of maintaining them. Holkham has some nine miles of wall (which took six years to construct) and the maintenance costs are high. As land has changed in value, it has not always be easy to maintain large areas outside of agricultural production. Deer have from the parks and it is the descendents of these that are now doing so well in the county.

What to do about non-natives

The other week I attended a conference in Peterborough on non-native birds; species that had become established within Britain, not through natural colonisation but as a direct result of our own actions. Typically, these were birds that had either escaped from captivity and established feral populations, or been deliberately released by those who thought that they would make a good addition to our native fauna. I was presenting a paper on Eagle Owls, looking at the potential impacts of this large predator on other species now that it had established a small breeding population in the north of England.

Some of the introduced species are obvious, notably many of the exotic ducks and geese that have become established over many decades. Species like Canada Goose and Egyptian Goose are now well established and, while seemingly innocuous, bring with them their own problems. Then there are other species, like Ruddy Duck and Ring-necked Parakeet, which give greater cause for concern. Introduced from North America, Ruddy Ducks now breeding in Britain turn up in Spain where they interbreed with the endangered (and native) White-headed Duck, threatening its very survival. Ring-necked Parakeets now have a population numbering many thousands of birds, centred on London and threatening native species which rely on the same types of nest site. Additionally, the parakeets damage the economically valuable horticultural industry with its heartland in Kent.

As well as such obvious and high profile additions to our fauna (and flora – think of Rhododendron, Japanese Knotweed and Buddleia) there are many hundreds of other species that have become established, many of which we think of as native simply because they were introduced such a long time ago. Included within these are creatures like Fallow Deer, Little Owl and Brown Hare, the latter seemingly an Iron Age introduction from Denmark or the Netherlands. Because we tend to think of these species as being native this clouds the issue of what to do about other introduced species. Is it right to wish to eradicate one particular introduction but tolerate another? Purists might argue that any species that has been introduced to a new area by Man should be removed, but what if the species in question has been here for many hundreds of years without any negative impact on our native wildlife? Others might argue that we should accept that such species are here, would be difficult to remove and so we should just learn to live with them.

There are clear cases, however, where an introduced species is a real threat and should be controlled. For example, the eradication of introduced cats, goats, pigs and rats from British Overseas Territories is essential if we are to prevent the extinction of several endemic bird species.

Are Norfolk's deer becoming a problem?

There has been quite a bit of discussion over recent months about the numbers of deer within the county. This has been part of a wider debate about deer numbers nationally and concerns have been expressed about the impact that they might be having on forestry and farming interests, other wildlife (by damaging woodland vegetation) and through collisions with motor vehicles. Just last week, there was an article on the subject in one of our local newspapers. The debate is an interesting one, particularly so for me in my role as County Mammal Recorder, and it raises a number of important issues centred around the interaction between humans and the other wildlife with which we share the countryside. 


Introduced species, such as muntjac and Chinese water deer, seem to be doing very well within the county and both species have increased in numbers and range over the last few years. Drive along any of the roads through Thetford Forest on a summer evening and you will see several dozen muntjac grazing on the verge during the course of your journey. These small, dog-sized, deer are surprisingly solid and any collision with a motorcar is likely to be damaging to both parties.


Research has demonstrated that at high densities, deer populations damage deciduous woodland by preventing natural regeneration and by removing much of the ground flora. This, in turn, reduces opportunities for other wildlife and is thought to be one of the reasons for the declines seen in a number of woodland bird species. Experiments using deer fences to exclude deer from small blocks within woodland show just how pronounced the impact of deer grazing can be. 


There may be good ecological and commercial reasons for the numbers of deer to be controlled and control through shooting has been an important component of forest management within the county for many decades. As with any control programme, it is important to know how many individuals there are in an area in order that a suitable level of control can be established. In the case of deer this can be something of a problem. Deer populations are not easy to monitor, in part because of their secretive nature, but also because populations may range over large areas. Traditional methods of monitoring mammals, such as recording field signs like tracks and droppings, are not always readily applicable to deer and require a high degree of skill on the part of the observer. Having said this, efforts are being made to build up a more complete picture of the number of deer in our region and various organisations are working together, through the Deer Initiative, to improve our understanding of these wonderful animals.